Rosemary is famed as the ‘ultimate’ hair-growth facilitating Essential Oil.
A Rosemary blend is quickly absorbed by the scalp and soon its properties take over, stimulating the very micro-capillaries around the follicle roots.
But did you know how fatal Rosemary Essential Oil can be, on cancerous cells and tumours? … with its potency to significantly debilitate them through its ‘free-radical’ scavenging effect (a.k.a anti-oxidant property)
Or how Rosemary Essential Oil can help combat UV exposure, aging, cellulite…?
Rosemary is known to aid memory and learning by enhancing concentration. Its sharp stinging aroma can spark a zing and perk up the fuzzed up.
Rosemary Essential oil can also be an effective analgesic in managing pain and inflammation when blended with Peppermint, Lavender and Wintergreen…
Studies have even shed light on the scientific effects of Rosemary Essential oil on the Nervous system, on pesky Fungal and Bacterial infections as well as Diabetes and Alzheimer’s…
Well let’s find out more right away. This post will discuss:
A. What is Rosemary Essential Oil?
Rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis earlier and now Salvia Rosmarinus) is an evergreen, aromatic, shrubby herb, native to Asia & Europe especially the Mediterranean regions.
Rosemary Essential Oil is derived from steam distillation of the fragrant needle like leaves.
Rosemary Essential Oil’s curative and potent, bioactive molecules like Triterpenes (ursolic, oleanolic acid), tricyclic diterpenes (carnosic acid and carnosol), phenolic acids (caffeic acid, rosmarinic acid) made it indispensable in traditional medicine for many millennia. Find out more about Essential oils therapeutic benefits here
Considered sacred to Egyptians, Romans and Greeks, the oldest mention of Rosemary has been found on cuneiform stone tablets as early as 5000(BCE). Pliny’s ‘The Natural History’ and Dioscorides’ cult herb-medicine book ‘De Materia Medica’ are both full of Rosemary prescriptions. To know more about the history of aromatherapy click here
B. How to use Rosemary Essential Oil (Top 4 blends).
1. Concentrate Better with Rosemary Essential Oil
Diffuse a blend of Rosemary, Basil and Peppermint Essential oils when you have a hard time concentrating.
Or when you feel overwhelmed, like there’s too much at hand.
Alternately simply inhale a few drops on your kerchief.
Bring in alertness,clarity and confidence, get rid of confusion and frustration.
2. Gorgeous tresses with Rosemary Essential Oil
Blend this combination of Rosemary and Lavender Essential Oils with virgin Coconut/ Jojoba/ Argan or Sweet almond carrier oil and store in an air tight glass bottle. Find out about the top 21 carrier oils with their skin/hair benefits.
Massage this blend onto your scalp in gentle circular motions of fingertips for 15 minutes, twice a week. Leave overnight and wash off the next day. Repeat each week.
3. Headache Relief with Rosemary Essential Oil
When that splitting headache due to exertion, heat or something else makes it hard to withstand the day's grind, simply settle down and let this wonderful aroma fill up your room and your senses.
Diffuse or inhale this combination of Rosemary, Peppermint, Lavender and Eucalyptus Essential Oils and let that pesky headache run for cover!
Alternately add these essential oils to a natural balm base, blend well and massage over your forehead and temples for quick relief.
4. Pain and inflammation relief with Rosemary Essential Oil
For those chronically painful and inflammatory areas, like the knee, the back, the calves or the neck, keep this blend of Rosemary, Wintergreen, Peppermint, Lavender and Eucalyptus handy in an airtight container.
Either mix this combination of essential oils into a natural balm base or in a neutral carrier oil like coconut oil/ sunflower oil.
Massage on to the affected area. Essential oils being volatile, the unabsorbed oil will evaporate quickly. So, repeat application and massage every few hours.
More ways to use Rosemary Essential Oil
5. Anti-bacterial deodoriser with Rosemary Essential Oil
Add 20 drops of Rosemary Essential Oil to 500 ml spray bottle with 25% grain alcohol and spritz all over for a wonderful, energising rush and also an aromatic anti-bacterial deodoriser. Tea Tree And Lemon Essential Oils can also be added to this deodoriser
6. Beating exhaustion, fatigue, stress and anxiety with Rosemary Essential Oil
Diffusing a few drops of Rosemary Essential oil can help beat fatigue by stimulating nerves and bringing about mental alertness. Citrus aromas like Lemon, Sweet Orange and floral aromas like Lavender, Geranium can aslo be added to this blend.
C. What are the research/ evidence based benefits of Rosemary Essential Oil?
Benefits of Rosemary Essential Oil, evidence based:
Volumes of research have been conducted to test the efficacy of Rosemary essential oil. Scientists cum researchers have come away impressed with the feats this humble herb can perform. Research shows how folk medicine used Rosemary for treating renal colic, dysmenorrhea, and muscle spasms (1, 2 )
Overall studies on the flora of Rosemary (1,2, 3,4) also present its antifungal, antiviral, antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, antitumor, antidepressant, antiulcerogenic, and antioxidant activities. and its applications in disorders related to nervous, cardiovascular, gastrointestinal, genitourinary, menstrual, hepatic, and reproductive systems and others [2].
1. Rosemary essential oil benefits for hair, evidence based.
Hair loss can cause tremendous anxiety.
In one study (5) Rosemary was tested for its clinical efficacy in treatment of androgenetic alopecia (AGA) (baldness/ extensive hair loss) vis-a-vis the popular hair growth drug Minoxidil (2%). It was found that both groups experienced a significant increase in hair count after regular use over 6 months.
Another study (6) involving 86 participants who massaged their scalp daily with a Rosemary, Lavender Essential Oil blended with grapeseed/ Jojoba carrier oil showed a 44% improvement in hair growth (computer analysis).
Other studies have also analysed the hair growth facilitating properties of Rosemary Essential Oil. (7,8)
The conclusion was that Rosemary Essential oil improves microcirculation surrounding hair follicles, inducing vascularity that helps hair follicle regeneration.
2. Rosemary Essential Oil benefits for Skin, evidence based
The skin is the largest organ in the human body; sensation, regulation, and protection are among its most critical functions.
Rosemary essential oil has been found to be effective in permeating the skin simply by topical application. It means one doesn’t have to necessarily consume it to get benefits of its bioactive compounds.
A study proved that essential oil rich in monoterpenoids, especially 1,8-cineole, such as Rosemary Essential Oil are capable of promoting cutaneous absorption (9). This means greater ability to pass on its therapeutic benefits simply by topical application.
(a) Rosemary essential oil for Skin problems such as acne, dandruff, oily congested skin
Studies show that Rosemary in a blend has the ability to mositurize (10) (11) (12) the skin effectively despite its astringent like properties. Rosemary Essential oil has been effective as proved in the studies to reduce pigmentation, acne, dandruff, bacterial/fungal infections and balancing sebum especially oily congested skin (13, 14,15,16,17,18,19,20)
(b) Rosemary Essential oil for Cellulite
A study (21) where 44 women with mild to severe cellulite used a cream with Rosemary and extracts of two other plants showed improvement in the appearance of the cellulite [22].
(c) Rosemary Essential Oil as anti-fungal treatment
Rosemary Essential oil was tested against fungal infections also known as dermatophytes as they live off the keratin on skin, mucous membranes, hair, nails and other body surfaces, causing many related diseases.
It was found that Rosemary essential oil with an 8% concentration was able to inhibit the growth of common fungal and yeast infection culprits like Candida albicans, Candida dubliniensis, Candida parapsilosis, and Candida krusei [23].
A similar study conducted on some more common dermatophytes- skin/hair/nail infection culprits like Microsporum gypseum and Trichophyton rubrum, showed that a 10% concentration of Rosemary Essential Oil could inhibit its growth by around 86% [24].
(d) Rosemary Essential oil as Anti- aging serum
Aging is a process that happens internally on a cellular level accelerated by external lifestyle factors such as excessive sun exposure, improper nutrition, sedentary habits and addictions like smoking, and drinking.
These factors together lead to the production of reactive oxygen species and when these surpass the cell’s neutralization capacity, the cell gets damaged leading to aging or diseases like cancer.
So free radicals left unchecked lead to oxidative stress and aging.
Rosemary Essential Oil has strong antioxidant properties (25,26) due to its phenolic compounds. This helps it scavenge on free radicals and reduce the oxidative stress, thereby keeping the cell health better and delay aging.
3. Rosemary Essential Oil benefits for Diabetes care, evidence based
One study found Rosemary Essential oil had a significant α-glucosidase inhibitory activity – a 60% decrease (27), while, in another study, Rosemary Essential Oil came out as the most potent among 31 other extracts of herbs and spices tested (28)
Another study concluded that Rosemary Essential Oil’s phenolic constituents, particularly carnosic acid, rosmarinic acid, and carnosol, could combat diabetes by regulating glucose metabolism, lipid metabolism and hence has anti-hyperalgesic and neuroprotective properties (29)
4. Rosemary Essential oils benefits as an Anti-Inflammatory agent, evidence based
Rosemary’s The bioactive compounds of Carnosol, carnosic acid, ursolic, oleanolic and micromeric acids lend the Rosemary essential oil with its anti-inflammatory properties. (30,31) This is a critical property that must be possessed by a medicine to be efficacious across a variety of disorders.
5. Rosemary Essential Oils benefits to the Nervous system, evidence based
Rosemary Essential Oil compounds particularly rosmarinic acid, carnosic acid are being recognized as promising natural medicines in the treatment of the nervous system disorders (32)
(a) Rosemary Essential oil to enhance Memory and learning, aid in dealing with Alzheimer’s
Free radicals are responsible for oxidative stress and aging. Rosemary Essential oil polyphenols rich in antioxidants are an effective shield here.
In particular the inhibition of prolyl oligopeptidase -POP (an enzyme involved in maturation and degradation of memory related properties) might be effective in enhancing learning or treating Alzheimer’s (39). Rosmarinic acid administered to mice over 2-3 weeks showed a cognitive-improving effect in mice. (40)
Another study conducted on mice administering Rosemary’s anti-oxidant components to them over 90 days revealed positive effects on their memory and learning. (41)
Inhalation of rosemary oil amongst 144 healthy volunteers showed an improvement in their mood as well as their cognitive performance (42).
Another study on Exam students showed the aroma of Rosemary Essential Oil improved performance by enhancing free radical scavenging and lowering cortisol levels (43).
A study showed Rosemary having positive influences on older adults (average age 75yrs) with regards to the speed of their memory as well as time taken to access information from working memory, (44). Another study showed Rosemary Essential oil helped with long-term memory (45)
(b) Rosemary Essential Oil as an Anti- depressant
Regulating the amount of dopamine and dopaminergic pathways is an important goal in controlling depression. Studies conducted on animals show that Rosemary Essential oil has an anti-depressant kind of an effect because of carnosol, ursolic acid, betulinic acid and 1,8-cineole. (33, 34)
(c) Rosemary Essential Oil for Nerve related pain and inflammation
The studies conducted on this, validates the traditional use of Rosemary Essential oil as an effective treatment for neurological disorders (relating to inflammation) and pain relief
In one study Rosemary Essential oil was successfully used to treat chronic constriction injury of sciatic nerve in rats over 14 days (46)
In another similar study Rosemary was able to reduce neuropathic hypersensitivity and protect nervous tissues (47)
Some more studies suggest that Rosmarinic acid could be a promising compound with its ability to protect against neuro-inflammation (48, 49).
6. Rosemary Essential Oil benefits in fighting cancer, evidence based
Rosemary Essential Oil and its Extracts have been extensively studied and recognized as a possible anticancer remedy predominantly because of its antioxidant activity.
As mentioned before, Rosemary essential oil has the capacity to scavenge on free radicals, and guard against oxidative stress and damage to cells. The anticancer action of its main polyphenols: carnosic acid, carnosol, rosmarinic acid, rosmanol, methyl carnosate and betulinic acid have been identified as inflictors of cytotoxicity on cancerous cells. (50)
Listing below some of the studies where Rosemary Essential oil was found valuable in complementing cancer treatment:
(C) Pancreatic cancer: 58
(i) Oral Cancer: 80
References: evidence based study on Rosemary Essential Oil
1.AI-Sereiti, M.R.; Abu-Amerb, K.M.; Sena, P. Pharmacology of rosemary (Rosmarinus oificinalis Linn.) and its therapeutic potentials. Indian J. Exp. Biol. 1999, 37, 124–130.
2.. Begum, A.; Sandhya, S.; Vinod, K.R.; Reddy, S.; Banji, D. An in-depth review on the medicinal flora Rosmarinus officinalis (Lamiaceae). Acta Sci. Pol. Technol. Aliment. 2013, 12, 61–74.
3. Ribeiro-Santos, R.; Carvalho-Costa, D.; Cavaleiro, C.; Costa, H.S.; Albuquerque, T.G.; Castilho, M.C.; Ramos, F.; Melo, N.R.; Sanches-Silva, A. A novel insight on an ancient aromatic plant: The rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis L.). Trends Food Sci. Technol. 2015, 45, 355–368. [CrossRef]
4.. Ojeda-Sana, A.M.; van Baren, C.M.; Elechosa, M.A.; Juárez, M.A.; Moreno, S. New insights into antibacterial and antioxidant activities of rosemary essential oils and their main components. Food Control 2013, 31, 189–195.
5. Rosemary oil vs minoxidil 2% for the treatment of androgenetic alopecia: a randomized comparative trial
6. Randomized trial of aromatherapy. Successful treatment for alopecia areata
7. Protective Role of Nutritional Plants Containing Flavonoids in Hair Follicle Disruption: A Review
Eleonora Bassino,1,* Franco Gasparri,2 and Luca Munaron1
8. Application of medicinal plants in several dermatovenerological entities
9. Transdermal absorption enhancing effect of the essential oil of Rosmarinus officinalis on percutaneous absorption of Na diclofenac from topical gel
10. Innovative Natural Ingredients-Based Multiple Emulsions: The Effect on Human Skin Moisture, Sebum Content, Pore Size and Pigmentation
Ugne Cizauskaite1,* and Jurga Bernatoniene1,2
11. Montenegro, L.; Pasquinucci, L.; Zappalà, A.; Chiechio, S.; Turnaturi, R.; Parenti, C. Rosemary Essential Oil-Loaded Lipid Nanoparticles: In Vivo Topical Activity from Gel Vehicles. Pharmaceutics 2017,
12. Calabrese, V.; Scapagnini, G.; Catalano, C.; Dinotta, F.; Geraci, D.; Morganti, P. Biochemical studies of a natural antioxidant isolated from Rosemary and its application in cosmetic dermatology. Int. J. Tissue React. 2000
13. Clarke S. Essential Chemistry for Aromatherapy. London, UK: Churchill Livingstone; 2008. [Google Scholar]
14. Lawless J. The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Essential Oils: The Complete Guide to the Use of Oils in Aromatherapy and Herbalism. Rockport, Mass, USA: Element Books; 1995. [Google Scholar]
15. Sellar W. The Directory of Essential Oils. London, UK: C. W. Daniel Company; 1992. [Google Scholar]
16.Curtis S. Essential Oils. London, UK: Aurum Press; 1996. [Google Scholar] [Ref list]
17.Ark Creative. Just Aromatherapy. Valencia, Calif, USA: Top That! Publishing; 2005. [Google Scholar]
18.Kovac M. A Quick Guide to Essential Oils. Ljubljana, Slovenia: Aromadelavnice s.p.; 2011. [Google Scholar]
19.Meadowbank. Ailments leaflet-find an essential oil for your ailment, 2012.
20. Rosmarinus officinalis extract suppresses Propionibacterium acnes-induced inflammatory responses
21. A Standardized composition comprised of Extracts from Rosmarinus officinalis, Annona squamosa and Zanthoxylum clava-herculis for Cellulite
22. Rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis L., syn Salvia rosmarinus Spenn.) and Its Topical Applications: A Review
Lucas Malvezzi de Macedo 1, Érica Mendes Dos Santos 2, Lucas Militão 3, Louise Lacalendola Tundisi 3, Janaína Artem Ataide 3, Eliana Barbosa Souto 4 5, Priscila Gava Mazzola 3
23. Gauch, L.M.R.; Pedrosa, S.S.; Esteves, R.A.; Silveira-Gomes, F.; Gurgel, E.S.C.; Arruda, A.C.; Marques-da-Silva, S.H. Antifungal activity of Rosmarinus officinalis Linn. Essential oil against Candida albicans, Candida dubliniensis, Candida parapsilosis and Candida krusei. Rev. Pan-Amaz. Saúde 2014, 5, 61–66
24. Sudan, P.; Singh, J. Antifungal Potential of Rosmarinus Officinalis against Microsporum Gypseum and Trichophyton Rubrum. Int. Res. J. Pharm. 2019, 10, 205–207
25. Antioxidant activity of rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis L.) essential oil and its hepatoprotective potential
Aleksandar Rašković, Isidora Milanović, Nebojša Pavlović 1, Tatjana Ćebović, Saša Vukmirović, Momir Mikov
26. Antioxidant and Antimicrobial Properties of Rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis, L.): A Review
Gema Nieto,1 Gaspar Ros,1 and Julián Castillo2,*
27. Rosemary Extract as a Potential Anti-Hyperglycaemic Agent: Current Evidence and Future Perspectives
28. Rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis) as a potential therapeutic plant in metabolic syndrome: a review
29.Antidiabetic Effects and Mechanisms of Rosemary ( Rosmarinus officinalis L.) and its Phenolic Components
30.Rosmarinus officinalis L. (rosemary) as therapeutic and prophylactic agent
Jonatas Rafael de Oliveira,1 Samira Esteves Afonso Camargo,2 and Luciane Dias de Oliveira1 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6325740/
31.Rosmarinic Acid as Potential Anti-Inflammatory Agent
32. Therapeutic effects of rosemary and its active constituents on nervous system disorders
33. Machado DG, Cunha MP, Neis VB, Balen GO, Colla AR, Grando J, et al. Rosmarinus officinalis L hydroalcoholic extract, similar to fluoxetine, reverses depressive-like behavior without altering learning deficit in olfactory bulbectomized mice. J Ethnopharmacol. 2012 a;143:158–169. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
34. Machado DG, Neis VB, Balen GO, Colla A, Cunha MP, Dalmarco JB, et al. Antidepressant-like effect of ursolic acid isolated from Rosmarinus officinalis L in mice: evidence for the involvement of the dopaminergic system. Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 2012 B;103:204–211. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
39. Polgar L. The prolyl oligopeptidase family. Cell Mol Life Sci. 2002;59:349–362. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
40. Park DH, Park SJ, Kim JM, Jung WY, Ryu JH. Subchronic administration of rosmarinic acid, a natural prolyl oligopeptidase inhibitor, enhances cognitive performances. Fitoterapia. 2010;81:644–648. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
41. Farr SA, Niehoff ML, Ceddia MA, Herrlinger KA, Lewis BJ, Feng S, et al. Effect of botanical extracts containing carnosic acid or rosmarinic acid on learning and memory in SAMP8 mice. Physiol Behav. 2016;15:328–338. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
42. Moss M, Cook J, Wesnes K, Duckett P. Aromas of rosemary and lavender essential oils differentially affect cognition and mood in healthy adults. Int J Neurosci. 2003;113:15–38. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
43. McCaffrey R, Thomas DJ, Kinzelman AO. The effects of lavender and rosemary essential oils on test-taking anxiety among graduate nursing students. Holist Nurs Pract. 2009;23:88–93. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
44. Pengelly A, Snow J, Mills SY, Scholey A, Wesnes K, Butler LR. Short-Term Study on the effects of rosemary on cognitive function in an elderly population. J Med Food. 2012;15:10–17. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
45. Rosmarinus officinalis L. leaf extract improves memory impairment and affects acetylcholinesterase and butyrylcholinesterase activities in rat brain.
Ozarowski M, Mikolajczak PL, Bogacz A, Gryszczynska A, Kujawska M, Jodynis-Liebert J, Piasecka A, Napieczynska H, Szulc M, Kujawski R, Bartkowiak-Wieczorek J, Cichocka J, Bobkiewicz-Kozlowska T, Czerny B, Mrozikiewicz PM
Fitoterapia. 2013 Dec; 91():261-271.
[PubMed]
46. Ghasemzadeh MR, Amin B, Mehri S, Mirnajafi-Zadeh SJ, Hosseinzadeh H. Effect of alcoholic extract of aerial parts of Rosmarinus officinalis L on pain, inflammation and apoptosis induced by chronic constriction injury (CCI) model of neuropathic pain in rats. J Ethnopharmacol. 2016;24:117–130.
[PubMed] [Google Scholar]
47. Di Cesare Mannelli L, Micheli L, Maresca M, Cravotto G, Bellumori M, Innocenti M, et al. Anti-neuropathic effects of Rosmarinus officinalis L terpenoid fraction: relevance of nicotinic receptors. Sci Rep. 2016;7:34832. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
48. Ghasemzadeh Rahbardar M, Amin B, Mehri S, Mirnajafi-Zadeh SJ, Hosseinzadeh H. Anti-inflammatory effects of ethanolic extract of Rosmarinus officinalis L and rosmarinic acid in a rat model of neuropathic pain. Biomed Pharmacother. 2017;86:441–449. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
49. Rahbardar MG, Amin B, Mehri S, Mirnajafi-Zadeh SJ, Hosseinzadeh H. Rosmarinic acid attenuates development and existing pain in a rat model of neuropathic pain: An evidence of anti-oxidative and anti-inflammatory effects. Phytomedicine. 2018;1:59–67. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
50. Anticancer Activity of Rosmarinus officinalis L.: Mechanisms of Action and Therapeutic Potentials
51. Kim, D.H.; Park, K.W.; Chae, I.G.; Kundu, J.; Kim, E.H.; Kundu, J.K.; Chun, K.S. Carnosic Acid Inhibits STAT3 Signaling and Induces Apoptosis Through Generation of ROS in Human Colon Cancer HCT116 Cells. Mol. Carcinog. 2016, 55, 1096–1110. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
52. Borrás-Linares, I.; Pérez-Sánchez, A.; Sánchez, J.L.; Barrajón Catalán, E.; Arráez-Román, D.; Cifuentes, A.; Micol, V.; Carretero, A.S. A bioguided identification of the active compounds that contribute to the antiproliferative/cytotoxic effects of rosemary extract on colon cancer cells. Food Chem. Toxicol. 2015, 80, 215–222. [CrossRef]
53. Valdés, A.; Artemenko, K.A.; Bergquist, J.; García-Cañas, V.; Cifuentes, A. Comprehensive proteomic study of the antiproliferative activity of a polyphenol-enriched rosemary extract on colon cancer cells using nano-liquid chromatography-orbitrap ms/ms. J. Proteome Res. 2016, 15, 1971–1985. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
54. Ibanez, C.; Simo, C.; Garcıa-Canas, V.; Gomez-Martınez, A.; Ferragut, J.A.; Cifuentes, A. CE/LC-MS multiplatform for broad metabolomic analysis of dietary polyphenols effect on colon cancer cells proliferation. Electrophoresis 2012, 33, 2328–2336. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
55. Gonzalez-Vallinas, M.; Molina, S.; Vicente, G.; de la Cueva, A.; Vargas, T.; Santoyo, S.; García-Risco, M.R.; Fornari, T.; Reglero, G.; Ramírez de Molina, A. Antitumor effect of 5-fluorouracil is enhanced by rosemary extract in both drug sensitive and resistant colon cancer cells. Pharmacol. Res. 2013, 72, 61–68. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
56. Karimi, N.; Rashedi, J.; Mahdavi Poor, B.; Arabi, S.; Ghorbani, M. Tahmasebpour, N.; Asgharzadeh, M. Cytotoxic effect of Rosemary extract on gastric adenocarcinoma (AGS) and esophageal squamous cell carcinoma (KYSE30) cell lines. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. Bed Bench 2017, 10, 102–107. [PubMed]
57. Shrestha, S.; Song, Y.W.; Kim, H.; Lee, D.S.; Cho, S.K. Sageone, a Diterpene from Rosmarinus Officinalis, Synergizes with Cisplatin Cytotoxicity in SNU-1 Human Gastric Cancer Cells. Phytomedicine 2016, 23, 1671–1679. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
58. Gonzalez-Vallinas, M.; Molina, S.; Vicente, G.; Zarza, V.; Martın-Hernandez, R.; Garcia-Risco, M.R.; Fornari, T.; Reglero, G.; De Molina, A.R. Expression of MicroRNA-15b and the glycosyltransferase GCNT3 correlates with antitumor efficacy of rosemary diterpenes in colon and pancreatic cancer. PLoS ONE 2014, 9, e98556. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
59. Gómez de Cedrón, M.; Laparra, J.M.; Loria-Kohen, V.; Molina, S.; Moreno-Rubio, J.; Montoya, J.J.; Torres, C.; Casado, E.; Reglero, G.; Ramírez de Molina, A. Tolerability and Safety of a Nutritional Supplement With Potential as Adjuvant in Colorectal Cancer Therapy: A Randomized Trial in Healthy Volunteers. Nutrients 2019, 11, 2001. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
60. Renzulli, C.; Galvano, F.; Pierdomenico, L.; Speroni, E.; Guerra, M.C. Effects of rosmarinic acid against aflatoxin B1 and ochratoxin-A-induced cell damage in a human hepatoma cell line (HepG2). J. Appl. Toxicol. 2004, 24, 289–296. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
61 Lin, C.-S.; Kuo, C.-L.; Wang, J.-P.; Cheng, J.-S.; Huang, Z.-W.; Chen, C.-F. Growth inhibitory and apoptosis inducing effect of Perilla frutescens extract on human hepatoma HepG2 cells. J. Ethnopharmacol. 2007, 112, 557–567. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
62. Wu, J.; Zhu, Y.; Li, F.; Zhang, G.; Shi, J.; Ou, R.; Tong, Y.; Liu, Y.; Liu, L.; Lu, L.; et al. Spica prunellae and its marker compound rosmarinic acid induced the expression of efflux transporters through activation of Nrf2-mediated signaling pathway in HepG2 cells. J. Ethnopharmacol. 2016, 193, 1–11. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
63. Wang, W.; Li, N.; Luo, M.; Zu, Y.; Efferth, T. Antibacterial Activity and Anticancer Activity of Rosmarinus officinalis L. Essential Oil Compared to That of Its Main Components. Molecules 2012, 17, 2704–2713. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
64. Moore, J.; Megaly, M.; MacNeil, A.J.; Klentrou, P.; Tsiani, E. Rosemary extract reduces Akt/mTOR/p70S6K activation and inhibits proliferation and survival of A549 human lung cancer cells. Biomed. Pharmacother. 2016, 83, 725–732. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
65. Tao, L.; Wang, S.; Zhao, Y.; Sheng, X.; Wang, A.; Zheng, S.; Lu, Y. Phenolcarboxylic acids from medicinal herbs exert anticancer effects through disruption of COX-2 activity. Phytomed. Int. J. Phytother. Phytopharm. 2014, 21, 1473–1482. [CrossRef] [PubMed] Nutrients 2020, 12, 1739 20 of 24
66. Fortes, C.; Forastiere, F.; Farchi, S.; Mallone, S.; Trequattrinni, T.; Anatra, F.; Giovanni Schmid, G.; Perucci, C.A. The protective effect of the Mediterranean diet on lung cancer. Nutr. Cancer 2003, 46, 30–37. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
67. Xu, Y.; Xu, G.; Liu, L.; Xu, D.; Liu, J. Anti-invasion effect of rosmarinic acid via the extracellular signal-regulated kinase and oxidation-reduction pathway in Ls174-T cells. J. Cell. Biochem. 2010, 111, 370–379. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
68. Liu, W.; Wu, T.C.; Hong, D.M.; Hu, Y.; Fan, T.; Guo, W.J.; Xu, Q. Carnosic acid enhances the anti-lung cancer effect of cisplatin by inhibiting myeloid-derived suppressor cells. Chin. J. Nat. Med. 2018, 16, 907–915. [CrossRef]
69. Kosaka, K.; Yokoi, T. Carnosic acid, a component of rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis L.), promotes synthesis of nerve growth factor in T98G human glioblastoma cells. Biol. Pharm. Bull. 2003, 26, 1620–1622. [CrossRef]
70. Mimura, J.; Kosaka, K.; Maruyama, A.; Satoh, T.; Harada, N.; Yoshida, H.; Satoh, K.; Yamamoto, M.; Itoh, K. Nrf2 regulates NGF mRNA induction by carnosic acid in T98G glioblastoma cells and normal human astrocytes. J. Biochem. 2011, 150, 209–217. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
71. Tsai, C.-W.; Lin, C.-Y.; Lin, H.-H.; Chen, J.-H. Carnosic acid, a rosemary phenolic compound, induces apoptosis through reactive oxygen species-mediated p38 activation in human neuroblastoma IMR-32 cells. Neurochem. Res. 2011, 36, 2442–2451. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
72. De Oliveira, M.R.; Ferreira, G.C.; Schuck, P.F.; dal Bosco, S.M. Role for the PI3K/Akt/Nrf2 signaling pathway in the protective effects of carnosic acid against methylglyoxal-induced neurotoxicity in SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma cells. Chem. Biol. Interact. 2015, 242, 396–406. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
73. Wang, W.; Li, N.; Luo, M.; Zu, Y.; Efferth, T. Antibacterial Activity and Anticancer Activity of Rosmarinus officinalis L. Essential Oil Compared to That of Its Main Components. Molecules 2012, 17, 2704–2713. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
74. Contini, A.; Di Bello, D.; Azzarà, A.; Giovanelli, S.; D’Urso, G.; Piaggi, S.; Pinto, B.; Pistelli, L.; Scarpato, R.; Testi, S. Assessing the cytotoxic/genotoxic activity and estrogenic/antiestrogenic potential of essential oils from seven aromatic plants. Food Chem. Toxicol. 2020, 138, 111205. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
75. Jardak, M.; Elloumi-Mseddi, J.; Aifa, S.; Mnif, S. Chemical composition, anti-biofilm activity and potential cytotoxic effect on cancer cells of Rosmarinus officinalis L. essential oil from Tunisia. Lipids Health Dis. 2017, 16, 190. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
76. Huang, S.C.; Ho, C.T.; Lin-Shiau, S.Y.; Lin, J.K. Carnosol inhibits the invasion of B16/F10 mouse melanoma cells by suppressing metalloproteinase-9 through down-regulating nuclear factor-kappa B and c-Jun. Biochem. Pharmacol. 2005, 69, 221–232. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
77. Park, S.Y.; Song, H.; Sung, M.-K.; Kang, Y.-H.; Lee, K.W.; Park, J.H.Y. Carnosic Acid Inhibits the Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition in B16F10 Melanoma Cells: A Possible Mechanism for the Inhibition of Cell Migration. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2014, 15, 12698–12713. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
78. Tong, L.; Wu, S. The Mechanisms of Carnosol in Chemoprevention of Ultraviolet B-Light-Induced Non-Melanoma Skin Cancer Formation. Sci. Rep. 2018, 8, 3574. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
79. Sancheti, G.; Goyal, P.K. Effect of Rosmarinus officinalis in Modulating 7,12-Dimethylbenz(a)anthracene induced Skin Tumorigenesis in Mice. Phytother. Res. 2006, 20, 981–986. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
80. Rajasekaran, D.; Manoharan, S.; Silvan, S.; Vasudevan, K.; Baskaran, N.; Palanimuthu, D. Proapoptotic, anti-cell proliferative, anti-inflammatory and anti-angiogenic potential of carnosic acid during 7,12 dimethylbenz[a]anthracene-induced hamster buccal pouch carcinogenesis. Afr. J. Tradit. Complement. Altern. Med. 2012, 10, 102–112. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
81. Min, K.-J.; Jung, K.-J.; Kwon, T.K. Carnosic Acid Induces Apoptosis Through Reactive Oxygen Species-mediated Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress Induction in Human Renal Carcinoma Caki Cells. J. Cancer Prev. 2014, 19, 170–178. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
82. Jung, K.-J.; Min, K.; Bae, J.H.; Kwon, T.K. Carnosic acid sensitized TRAIL-mediated apoptosis through down-regulation of c-FLIP and Bcl-2 expression at the post translational levels and CHOP-dependent up-regulation of DR5, Bim, and PUMA expression in human carcinoma caki cells. Oncotarget 2015, 6, 1556–1568. [CrossRef]
83. Johnson, J.J.; Syed, D.N.; Heren, C.R.; Suh, Y.; Adhami, V.M.; Mukhtar, H. Carnosol, a dietary diterpene, displays growth inhibitory effects in human prostate cancer PC3 cells leading to G2phase cell cycle arrest and targets the 5’-AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) pathway. Pharm. Res. 2008, 25, 2125–2134. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
84. Kar, S.; Palit, S.; Ball, W.B.; Das, P.K. Carnosic acid modulates Akt/IKK/NF-κB signaling by PP2A and induces intrinsic and extrinsic pathway mediated apoptosis in human prostate carcinoma PC-3 cells. Apoptosis 2012, 7, 735–747. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
85. Bourhia, M.; Laasri, F.E.; Aourik, H.; Boukhris, A.; Ullah, R.; Bari, A.; Ali, S.S.; El Mzibri, M.; Benbacer, L.; Gmouh, S. Antioxidant and Antiproliferative Activities of Bioactive Compounds Contained in Rosmarinus officinalis Used in the Mediterranean Diet. Evid. Based Complement. Alternat. Med. 2019, 2019, 7623830. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
86. Zhao, P.W.; Lee, D.Y.; Ma, Z.Z.; Sun, Y.-L.; Tao, S.-Y.; Zang, J.-F.; Niu, J.-Z. Effect of carnosol against proliferative activity of breast cancer cells and its estrogen receptor subtype’s mediation and regulation mechanisms. Zhongguo Zhong Yao Za Zhi 2014, 39, 3344–3348. [PubMed]
87. Al Dhaheri, Y.; Attoub, S.; Ramadan, G.; Arafat, K.; Bajbouj, K.; Karuvantevida, N.; Abu Qamar, S.; Eid, A.; Iratni, R. Carnosol induces ROSmediated Beclin1-independent autophagy and apoptosis in triple negative breast cancer. PLoS ONE 2014, 9, e109630. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
88. Shrivastava, A.; Kuzontkoski, P.M.; Groopman, J.E.; Prasad, A. Cannabidiol induces programmed cell death in breast cancer cells by coordinating the cross-talk between apoptosis and autophagy. Mol. Cancer Ther. 2011, 10, 1161–1172. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
<a href='https://www.freepik.com/photos/flower'>Flower photo created by jcomp - www.freepik.com</a>